Inventing a herbal tradition: The complex roots of the current popularity of Epilobium angustifolium in Eastern Europe.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Currently various scientific and popular sources provide a wide spectrum of ethnopharmacological information on many plants, yet the sources of that information, as well as the information itself, are often not clear, potentially resulting in the erroneous use of plants among lay people or even in official medicine. Our field studies in seven countries on the Eastern edge of Europe have revealed an unusual increase in the medicinal use of Epilobium angustifolium L., especially in Estonia, where the majority of uses were specifically related to "men's problems". THE AIM OF THE CURRENT WORK IS: to understand the recent and sudden increase in the interest in the use of E. angustifolium in Estonia; to evaluate the extent of documented traditional use of E. angustifolium among sources of knowledge considered traditional; to track different sources describing (or attributed as describing) the benefits of E. angustifolium; and to detect direct and indirect influences of the written sources on the currently documented local uses of E. angustifolium on the Eastern edge of Europe. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this study we used a variety of methods: semi-structured interviews with 599 people in 7 countries, historical data analysis and historical ethnopharmacological source analysis. We researched historical and archival sources, and academic and popular literature published on the medicinal use of E. angustifolium in the regions of our field sites as well as internationally, paying close attention to the literature that might have directly or indirectly contributed to the popularity of E. angustifolium at different times in history. RESULTS: Our results show that the sudden and recent popularity in the medical use of E. angustifolium in Estonia has been caused by local popular authors with academic medical backgrounds, relying simultaneously on "western" and Russian sources. While Russian sources have propagated (partially unpublished) results from the 1930s, "western" sources are scientific insights derived from the popularization of other Epilobium species by Austrian herbalist Maria Treben. The information Treben disseminated could have been originated from a previous peak in popularity of E. angustifolium in USA in the second half of the 19th century, caused in turn by misinterpretation of ancient herbals. The traditional uses of E. angustifolium were related to wounds and skin diseases, fever, pain (headache, sore throat, childbirth), and abdominal-related problems (constipation, stomach ache) and intestinal bleeding. Few more uses were based on the similarity principle. The main theme, however, is the fragmentation of use and its lack of consistency apart from wounds and skin diseases. CONCLUSIONS: Historical ethnobotanical investigations could help to avoid creating repeating waves of popularity of plants that have already been tried for certain diseases and later abandoned as not fully effective. There is, of course, a chance that E. angustifolium could also finally be proven to be clinically safe and cost-effective for treating benign prostatic hyperplasia, but this has not yet happened despite recent intensive research. Documented traditional use would suggest investigating the dermatological, intestinal anti-hemorrhagic and pain inhibiting properties of this plant, if any.

Comparative Studies of Two Major Sets of Tibetan Medical Paintings: A Historical Perspective.

Tibetan medicine, one of the time-honored medical systems in the world, has increasingly been receiving attention the world over. Tibetan medical paintings (TMP, tib. Sman thang) has become one of the focal points in the studies of this medical system. To date, there are many atlases and publications on TMP, which are principally based on the two major sets of TMP series existing today in the world, the Lhasa set and the Buryat set. It has been found that the Buryat set is based on the Lhasa set, which was brought in late 19th to the first half of the 20th century from Tibet to Buryatia, Russia. A careful investigation on the basic structure of the two sets reveals that there are many differences between the two sets of paintings, including the total number of the paintings involved, of which some are missing in one set, the details of the captions of some of the paintings, the existence of the 80th painting and its supervisor, and the overall order of the entire set, etc. The details of the differences are elaborated and discussed, and the prospective of developing the research to arrive at a standard and perfect TMP set in the future is also analyzed and anticipated.

[A new interpretation on scattered Tibetan manuscripts collected from Xixia site and preserved in Guazhou museum].

Tibetan Manuscripts No.01272 preserved in Guazhou county museum were excavated from a Xixia site. It contains three pieces of medical manuscripts which belonged to two different documents, containing medical prescriptions and external treatments. The medical prescriptions include purgative, cold and wound medicines, which are presented in the form of ingredients, manufacture and instructions. The external treatments include acupuncture and bloodletting. The study of the three pieces will be helpful to the study of the medical history during Xixia dynasty and the history of Tibetan medicine communication.

[Textual research on P. t.1061, a Tibetan veterinary medical scroll fragment of Dunhuang literature preserved in France].

P. t.1061 preserved at the Manuscripts Department of the Bibiothèque Nationle de France, is a Dunhuang Tibetan veterinary medical manuscript that focuses on the surgical therapy of equine rhinopathy. The method of blowing a small quantity of ammonium chloride through a bamboo tube to treat horse nasal sinus diseases was described in the original scroll; if not effective, burn with a proper cauterization apparatus; if still ineffective, prick with a fine bloodletting needle; if still not effective, operate frontal trephination. The frontal trephination documented in P. t.1061 is by far the earliest record in Tibetan language of relative operation so far discovered.

[Decipherment and annotation of a manuscript of Tibetan medicine in Dunhuang scroll (Part II)-on prescription].

A manuscript of Tibetan medicine, P. t.1054, written on 4 pattra-leaf-like rectangular papers connected together, is collected in the Volume 10 of Dunhuang Tibetan Manuscripts Preserved in France Scroll. The contents on the front pages of the whole set is on pulse-taking of Tibetan medicine, and the back pages, on prescriptions containing 5 recipes of cathartics and medicinal oils, are included in 16 lines on the remained Scroll dealing with its ingredients, processing method, function and indications which can be differentiated into 5 units. There are altogether 30 drugs applied, including plants, animals and mineral. Among them, almost half are transliterated from foreign languages, and some of them are titled with India, Han region, etc. for distinguishing its producing area and breeds. It is preliminarily probative that this whole Scroll is translated-edited from certain part of an Indian formulary.

[Analysis on the unearthed Khotanese remaining prescription P. 2899v in the Library Grottoes at Dunhuang].

Khotanese remaining prescription P. 2889v was written in Khotanese.Because of the affinity between Khotan and Dunhuang, thus it appeared in the Dunhuang Library Grottoes.Traditional Indian medical work Siddhasara copied around 982 and composed in Khotanese also unearthed in Dunhuang.It is speculated that the copy time of P. 2889v is slightly earlier than 982. The third formula prescription in P. 2889v is similar to the Kalyanaka found in the Siddhasara and Daji Medicinal Oil Pill recorded in the Volume of Tibetan Medicine of the Chinese Medical Encyclopedia, demonstrating that this prescription had been circulating in the western region and Tibet, which indicates the spread of the Indian Ayurveda medicine in western China with profound influences.

[Textual research for Tibetan medicine Qumazi].

Qumazi is a commonly used Tibetan medicine. With a long history, it can be found in the Four Medical Tantras written by gYu-thog rNying-ma Yon-tan mGon-po since the 8th century AD. Qumazi grows in mudflats and fields, including species growing in highlands, lowlands, mountains and farmlands. According to records in Crystal Beads Materia Medica, it features green sword-shaped leaves, thin stems with red veins, inserted panicles, white chicken-like flowers and copper needle row-like roots. However, there are many inconsistent morphological descriptions for Qumazi plants in many Chinese versions of Tibetan medicine books. In this article, after studying ancient and modern Tibetan medicine books, consulting experts and conducting surveys, the authors confirmed that Qumazi belongs to Rheum of Polygonaceae, including Rheum nobile Hook. f. et. Thoms, R. globulosum Gage, R. alexandrae Hook. f. et. Thoms, R. pumilum Maxim and R. delavayi Franch. In some regions, Qumazi is substituted by R. spiciforme Royle and R. przewalskyi Losinsk. After the Chinese version of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Drug Illustrations was published in 1972, Qumazi has been miswritten as P. sibiricum Laxm in many Chinese versions of Tibetan medicine books, perhaps because P. sibiricum Laxm has many similar features with Qumazi as described in Crystal Beads Materia Medica and then is mistranslated from Tibetan to Chinese versions. According to records, Qumazi can reduce edema and is mainly applied to treat the minamata disease in clinic.

[Varieties textual research and usage investigation of white flos gentianae, a Tibetan medicine].

OBJECTIVE: To clarity the original plants and the main application varieties of White Flos Gentianae. METHOD: Herbal textual research, wild specimen collection, investigation and collection of the samples from Tibetan hospital, Tibetan pharmaceutical factory and medical material market were carried out simultaneously to identify the original plants of White Flos Gentianae. RESULT: The results of varieties textual research and specimen identification showed that Gentiana szechenyii, G. purdomii and G. algida were in accord with the record of Tibetan herbal textual The three species above were the original plants of White Flos Gentianae. The identification of 20 batches samples showed that G. szechenyii was the main application variety. The other varieties were only used in Tibetan hospitals. All the samples above were flowering branches. CONCLUSION: It was necessary to strengthen the research on variety systematization of White Flos Gentianae make a further discussion on the taxonomy position of G. purdomii, G. algida and the white flos population. Its was also nessary to establish and improve the quality standard of different variety based on the principle of "one species, one name". The quality specification of White Flos Gentianae should be established and improved to standard clinical utilization and produce feeding. More study of resources investigation and cultivation of G. szechenyii should be carried on to meet the demand of produce and clinic.

Unique aspect of Tibetan medicine.

Tibetan medicine is known as the knowledge of healing in the Four Tantras, the main medical text studied by Tibetan doctors. In the 8th century, King Trisong Deutsen (718-785 CE) invited eminent physicians from India, China, Persia, East Turkestan, Mongolia, and Nepal for the First International Medical Symposium in Samye, Tibet and ordered his personal physician Elder Yuthog Yonten Gonpo (708-833 CE), who lived 125 years, and participated in this conference to summarize. By combining all the information available and presented during this symposium, he compiled the Four Tantras. He established the Tanadug medical school at Menlung in Kongpo, Southern Tibet in 763 CE, and worked for the propagation of Tibetan medicine. He is considered an emanation of Medicine Buddha, who is a symbol of mental and physical well being. In his left hand, the Medicine Buddha clasps a begging bowl with long-life nectar, signifying immortality, and in his right, the Chebulic myrobalan (Haritaki), a symbol of good health. Chebulic myrobalan, Belleric myrobalan, and Emblic myrobalan are together called the "3 Fruits" and are common ingredients in Tibetan medicines. Prof. Omura, Y of NY Medical College evaluated these "3 Fruits" and found that one of them available as a "Haritaki," had the highest normal cell telomere increasing effect by optimal dose, with improvement of circulation all over the body, which in turn inhibits cancer activity. He considered Tibetan medicine to be the most advanced medicine in the world before the 19th Century with its well-organized systematic method as described by colorful Tibetan medical paintings by Sangye Gyamtso (1653-1705 CE). During a typical diagnosis, the physician examines the patients' tongue, radial arteries for pulse beats by the index, middle, and ring fingers of both hands and the urine for features like color, vapor, and bubbles, etc.

[Sman pa grwa tshang and the development of Tibetan Medicine].

Sman pa grwa tshang refers to Tibetan medical schools attached to Tibetan Buddhist monasteries (basically of the Gelugpa sect), which is a comprehensive institution devoted to medical education, clinic treatment and medicinal production. It has played a significant role in the training of medical professionals, and is itself an embodiment and outgrowth of the further institutionalization and systematization of the monastery educational system after the establishment of Gelugpa sect in the 15(th) century. The model of Sman pa grwa tshang first took shape from the famous Chagpori Grophangling, established in Lhasa by Desi Sanggy Gyamtso (Tib: Sde srid sangs rgyas rgya mtso 1653-1705) in 1696. Later, the model spread to Amdo, Mongolian areas and China's cities like Beijing and Chengde where almost a hundred Sman pa grwa tshangs were set up successively. The emergence of Sman pa grwa tshangs played a significant role in the transmission and development of Tibetan medicine.

[An introduction of Zuotai in Tibetan patent medicine].

Zuotai is an essential part in Tibetan patent medicine, which plays an important role in treating diseases. This paper introduced the invention, preparing process, use, effectiveness, and safety of Zuotai, aimed to provide an insight for traditional Chinese medicine when using heavy mental within Chinese patent medicine.

[Early encounters of German-language explorers with the Tibetan medicine in Siberia in the modern era]. / Frühe neuzeitliche Begegnungen deutschsprachiger Forscher mit der tibetischen Medizin in Sibirien.

The spreading of Tibetan Buddhism and with it the Tibetan medicine in the region east of Lake Baikal, goes back to the 17th century. At the beginning of the 18th century, German speaking scholars were among the first to undertake scientific expeditions through Siberia. As such they were amongst the first scientists of the modern era who encountered the traditions, concepts, and therapeutic methods of Tibetan medicine. The aim of this article is to describe and analyze these first encounters with Tibetan medicine by the example of selected men of science of the 18th and 19th century. This work is based on extensive studies of sources in archives and libraries in Russia and Switzerland. We found documents related to the following scientists: Daniel Gottlieb Messerschmidt (1685-1735), Johann Georg Gmelin (1709-1755), Erik Laxmann (1737-1796), Friedrich Adelung (1768-1843), and Joseph Rehmann (1779-1831). They mentioned the distribution of Tibetan medicine within Russia, the use of medicinal plants and formulas as well as therapeutic techniques. For the scientific community of the time these first encounters of Europeans with practitioners of Tibetan medicine could not lift Tibetan medicine out of other exotic context in the field of ethnography. For today's researchers, these encounters are an important evidence for more than 300 years of development of Tibetan medicine on the vast territory of Siberia. The practice and the scientific examination of Tibetan medicine in Siberia is an active endeavor until today. The present work shows that it is possible and rewarding to follow up the historic and cultural connections from Europe to Asia via the Siberian link.

[Literature survey on botanical origin and clinical application of traditional Tibetan medicine "Shengdeng"].

"Shengdeng" is its Tibetan transliteration referring to many medicines. Tibetan doctors and pharmacists in different areas use different drugs in formulation and clinical application, which are easily confused. In order to grasp the formula and clinical application accurately, we conduct a literature survey on history and current state of botanical origin and clinical application of "Shengdeng", making clear the application of various herbs named "Shengdeng" and providing reference to all Tibetan researchers and clinical workers in formulation and clinical application.

[Textual criticized and collated on names and breeds of Tibetan medicine "Dida"].

Integrating textual criticism literatures with field survey, the name, classification and botanical originals of breeds of Tibetan medicine "Dida" were discussed in this paper. The results showed that it's very intricate and confusion in the names, breeds and botanical originals of "Dida", and those were the key restricting factors resulting in shortfall and difficult formulation in quality standard of "Dida". The similar situations are existing universally in ethnodrugs, and reflecting the necessity and urgency to collate ethnodrug breeds. On the other hand, Because of the morphologic description on the botanical origins of drug was often simple in the ancient literatures, and in most cases, the botanical origins of the drug were difficult to identify accurately on the basis of the literatures. So, in the collating the breeds, it's necessary to follow the principle of "according to the ancient literatures but no rigidly", and to pay attention to the historical vicissitude of the drug breeds and origins, and the survey of present resources and clinical using, draw actively on outcome of chemical and biological active researches. That inherited the characteristics and advantages of ethnodrugs, and promoted them them modernization.

A hybrid body technique: does the pulse diagnostic cun guan chi method have Chinese-Tibetan origins?

This article investigates the medieval origins of the main pulse diagnostic method in contemporary Chinese medicine, sometimes known as san bu (three sectors) method, which requires physicians to examine the mai (vessels, vessel movements or pulse) on the wrist at the three locations cun guan chi (inch, gate, foot). The article provides evidence to suggest that this body technique grew out of an earlier Chinese one, the cun chi (inch-foot) method, which appears to have aimed at investigating the qualities of yin and yang in order to determine the condition of a patient by means of exploring fairly large areas of the patient's body surface with the palms. The article furthermore posits that the cun chi method was decisively transformed in medieval times, presumably due to the impact of early Tibetan pulse diagnostic practices: it became framed in a numerology of three and started advocating the use of the fingertips for sensing the pulse beats. The article, which draws on detailed textual analyses of medieval manuscripts, on visual evidence and also on psychophysical research, furthermore highlights how misunderstandings can constructively contribute to cultural communication.

Critical methods in Tibetan medical histories.

This paper addresses the development of scholastic medical traditions in Tibet through an extension of lists of physicians. I consider the debates that such lists and their accompanying narratives engender for Tibetan historians and reflect on the contributions they make to the identity of the medical tradition. By examining the structure and content of classificatory methods in medical histories, I argue that temporally organized lists document the place of medicine across time, geographically organized lists document the reach of medical knowledge across space, and thematically organized lists document the intertwining of medical knowledge and skill with other aspects of intellectual and civil life. In making these lists, medical historians paint a portrait of the Tibetan medical tradition that evokes connections to Buddhism and the strength and cosmopolitanism of the imperial period. Medical histories thus emphasize a picture of Tibet in the broader context of Asia- a Tibet whose empire lives on culturally or intellectually, if not militarily.

[Literature data investigation in semem of Herpetospermum pedunculosum].

Based on literature data, related specimens, commercial samples and field investigation, botanical origin of "bolingguazi" was clarified. Boling guazi was found to be used as a Tibetan medicine in China from 8th century, it was derived from Herpetospermum pedunculosum of cucurbitaceae, and main species of bolingguazi used in most areas of China were H. pednculosura, while seeds of Momordica charantia, Thladiantha setispina and M. cohinchinensis were also available in some areas of China.